In the US, "professors" usually occupy one of several positions in the academic world, usually the line of assistant professors , associate professor , or professor . The same term is used outside the US, although it often shows different roles from within the US system. However, the majority of university lecturers and instructors in the United States, by 2015, do not occupy this ranks of mastery, but are an additional part of the time.
Research and education is one of the main tasks of professors of tenure and occupation, with the amount of time spent on research or teaching relying heavily on the type of institution. Publication of articles in conferences, journals, and books is essential for the progress of work. In August 2007, teaching in tertiary educational institutions was one of the fastest growing jobs, surpassing the US Department of Labor's list of "above-average wages and high-growth growth jobs", with a projected increase of 524,000 positions between 2004 and 2014. 2011, a survey conducted by TIAA-CREF Institute senior researcher Paul J. Yakoboski estimates that 73% of professors with senior term are between the ages of 60 and 66 and that the remaining 27% are over the age of 66. Yakoboski estimates that 75% of these professors have admitted that they have not made preparations for retirement due to the ongoing financial crisis and the reluctance to abandon their profession. The 2013 survey conducted by Fidelity Investments will echo the same results when questions about retirement arose.
Video Professors in the United States
Overview
The term "professor" in the United States refers to a group of educators at the college and university levels. In the United States, while the "Professor" as a proper noun (in capital letters "P") generally implies the title of officially assigned positions by universities or colleges to faculty members with PhD degrees or the highest degree of terminal degree in non-academic fields (eg, MFA), common noun "professors" are often used casually to refer to anyone who teaches at the college level, regardless of rank or title. In some junior colleges without a formal ranking system, the instructor is awarded the honorary title "professor".
Tenure-track positions and tenure-track
Full-time faculty members with PhD or other highest-level terminal degrees (designated as accepted by universities or colleges), engage in teaching, mentoring, research, and service. Only faculty in this position are eligible for term of office.
- Assistant Professor : Professor introduction level. A position generally taken after receiving a PhD and often, especially in science, completes a post-doctoral fellowship. After 7 years, in most American colleges and universities, permanent faculty members (usually assistant professors) should be awarded, or dismissed from the university.
- Associate Professor : An intermediate professor, usually a tenor.
- Professor (sometimes referred to as "Full Professor" ): a permanent senior professor.
- Distinguished Professor or Endowed Chair (eg, "Brian S. Smith Professor of Physics"): A position of honor in which the full professor's salary may be increased, donations from universities, individuals, corporations, or foundations.
The top administrative paper in many academic departments is "department chair." Before the 1970s, such administrators were called "chairmen" or "chiefs," but the term in most institutions has since been neutral gender "chairmen," or shortened to "seats." While many departmental seats also hold the seats that are awarded, the two positions are different.
Educators who hold the official title of "Professor" (referred to as a tenure-mastery faculty) usually begin their career as an assistant professor (or "lecturer" and "senior lecturer"), with subsequent promotions to the professors and finally professors . The title is a historical tradition; for example, it is not implied that assistant professors "help" more senior faculty members. There is often a rigorous time for applications for promotion from assistant professors, most often 5 or 6 years after initial appointment. Applicants are evaluated based on their contributions to research, teaching, and administration. The relative weight of these contributions differs by institution, with universities awarding PhDs typically putting more emphasis on research and higher liberal arts colleges that emphasize teaching. The decision to grant ownership and promotion of assistant professors usually requires a great deal of approval, in the usual order being: External reviewers - some leading national or international academics in the candidate field will be required to review candidates' requests for promotion and submit confidential reports;
The decision to refuse a candidate of dominance usually requires individuals to leave the agency within two years (under AAUP ownership guidance). Otherwise, the term of office is given along with the promotion of the assistant professor. Although tenure and promotion are usually separate decisions, they are often highly correlated in such a way that the decision to provide promotions coincides with a decision that supports ownership, and vice versa. Promotions to associate professors typically result in increased administrative burdens and membership on committees that are limited to fixed faculty.
Some people remain at the professor's level throughout their careers. However, most will apply for final promotions for full professors; timeline to make this application more flexible than that for assistants to associate positions and professors do not usually lose their jobs if the application is rejected. As with the promotion of assistant professors, promotion from association to full professor involves review at various levels, similar to a previous review of tenure/promotion. These include external reviews, departmental decisions, recommendations by other department members, and high-level university officials. Typically, this final promotion requires that individuals have maintained an active research program, and excellent teaching, in addition to taking leadership roles in important departmental and extra-departmental administrative tasks. A full professor is the highest rank a professor can achieve (other than in a prescribed position) and is rarely achieved before a person reaches the age of 40s. The full professor's rank carries additional administrative responsibilities associated with membership on committees that are restricted to full professors.
Two-year community colleges that grant property rights often use "professor" ranking systems as well. Candidates for term of office in these institutions usually do not need to hold a PhD, only the required level (usually a master) for the job as an instructor.
Non-tenure-track position
Retired faculty can maintain formal or informal relationships with their universities, such as library privileges or office space. In some institutions, faculty who have retired after achieving the rank of professor are given the title of "professor emeritus" (male) or "professor emerita" (female).
Maps Professors in the United States
Tenure-track teachers
Although the term "professor" is often used to refer to a college or university teacher, there are different degrees of professorship ranging from entry-level positions as "assistant professors" to "full professors," the rank provided to professors. who have established themselves as experts in their academic field. Contrary to some beliefs, assistant professors, associate professors, and full professors are all, in fact, technically professors. Usually students who have completed their doctoral studies seek positions as assistant professors at colleges and universities. As they progress in their established fields through research, teaching, and service, they can bid for promotion and tenure, which usually elevates them to associate professorship. Associate professors who continue to build high profile and become experts in their field of study may bid for promotion to full professors, who are regarded as honorable positions dedicated to the most successful professors working in their field. College teachers and universities who hold the rank of lecturers or instructors are typically not permanent lecturers/professors, and usually focus on undergraduate teaching, and are generally not involved in research, or usually they are involved in decision making in departments and universities. (Note that in other English-speaking countries, the term lecturer may have different meanings, for example, in the UK and Ireland, the lecturer's position is equivalent to an assistant professor in the US System.)
Assistant professor
The assistant professor rank is generally held for a five to seven year trial period, after which the individual will be promoted to a professor and granted proprietary rights (ie, can not be fired without cause and formal hearing process) or will be terminated from work. In 2007, 23.1% of academics held the rank of assistant professor.
Competitions for the position of assistant professors in various fields grow rapidly; the number of PhD graduates increases, while the number of assistant professors' openings remains rough. The opposite is true in business disciplines, where the estimated shortfall of business faculty can reach 2,400 openings by 2012. The US Occupation Outlook Handbook notes that a significant proportion of any growth in the work of academic professors will be due to "part-time and non-lane- tracks ". In 2003, the average age at which scientists receive tenure in the United States is 39, which can make it difficult for professors to balance professional and family obligations.
The process of land tenure
After several years at the rank of assistant professor, individuals are considered for promotion and tenure. Ownership is generally a lifelong employment agreement, and can also serve as a means to protect faculties whose research may be socially, politically or scientifically controversial. Rates for achieving tenure vary, depending on the institution and field of study; in most places, at least 50% of assistant professors will eventually become tenured and promoted to associate professors; However, this number can be as low as 10% in the natural science department of a reputable university or in a school that does not get a doctorate. Under unusual circumstances, it is possible to accept a position but remain as an assistant professor, usually when the term of office is given earlier.
Associate professor
Upon successful completion of tenure, the assistant professor is usually promoted to the rank of associate professor . Middle-level positions are usually given after a substantial record of academic achievement (such as the publication of one or more books, many research articles, successful external research support support programs, successful teaching and/or services to the department); but specific requirements vary between agencies and departments. In 2007, 22.4% of academics held the rank of professor.
Alternatively, one may be employed at the professorship level without ownership (which is a typical practice at some universities, often done as a financial inducement to attract someone from outside the institution, but who may not have met all qualifications for term of office). If an applicant is appointed to the rank of professor without a term of office, the position is usually a tenure-track in the hope that the person will soon qualify for the term of office.
In some institutions, individuals are promoted to the rank of professor before receiving employment. In this situation, the individual may eventually apply for ownership in the agency or, optionally, seek permanent positions elsewhere.
Professor
After a track record of sustained and respected academic achievement in one university and academic discipline, a professor may be promoted to a professor (sometimes referred to as "full professor"). In most traditional colleges and universities, this position is always tenured; However, this may not be the case in non-profit private institutions or universities and colleges affiliated with specific churches.
The rank of professor is the highest of the standard academic rankings in the United States, and is held by 29.5% of US academics. Progress beyond the rank of professor usually involves administrative duties (eg, department chairman, dean, or provost) or election for honorary degrees or conferred seats.
The absence of retirement age shall contribute to "gray" from this work. The average age of full American professors (in 2006) is about 55 years. Very few people reach this position before the age of 40 years. The average full-time professor's annual salary is $ 99,000, though less so in non-doctoral institutions, and more so in private doctors (excluding side income from grants and consultations, which can be substantial in some areas); In addition, agencies in big cities or high cost dwellings will pay higher salaries. Full professors earn on average about 70% more than assistant professors at the same institution.
In addition to increasing salaries, every promotion step also tends to be accompanied by increased administrative responsibilities. In some cases, these changes are offset by reduced teaching or research expectations.
Special academic rank (powered)
Professor emeritus and emerita
A full professor who retires with a good reputation can be called a professor emeritus for men, or a professor emerit for women. This degree is also awarded to retired professors who continue to teach and enroll. The title can also be given to full professors who have left other institutions but are still working full time. This concept has been expanded in several places to include also associate professors of associations, as well as non-tenure-track faculty. In some systems and institutions, the rank is given to all professors who have retired with a good reputation, while others require special actions or voices. Depending on local circumstances, emeriti professors may retain office space or other privileges.
This word is usually used as a pospositional adjective ("emeritus professor") but can also be used as an adjective preposition ("emeritus professor"). There is a third use, which is somewhat less common, following the full title (eg, "professor of medicine, emeritus".)
Distinguished (teaching/research) professors
Often specialized for one institution, titles such as "professor of the president", "university professor", "regent professor", or "eminent professor" are generally awarded to a small portion of a high-ranking faculty deemed very important in their respective field of study. Some institutions provide more university-specific titles such as "Professor Institute" M.I.T., "Professor Yale University", or "Professor Professor Duke Duke" Duke University.
Some academic and/or scientific organizations may also award the title of "distinguished professors" in recognition of achievements during the course of an academic career. For example, the Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture each year recognizes up to five faculties at architectural schools in the United States and Canada with the ACSA Distinguished Professor Award.
Named/awarded seats
The chairman of a "named seat" or "assigned seat" is a professor who holds a certain position in a university system financially supported by an investment portfolio (ie, a donation) originally created by funds donated from a company, person, or group of people. The blessed chairs are usually named for the person or entity that donated these funds, or to someone donated by money, such as the emeritus professor at the institute. Blessed chairs are best classified as positions rather than career rankings, as professors of many different ranks can theoretically hold such seats. However, since prestige associations with holding seats are conferred, generally related to important notations in their field, professors with blessed seats most often have achieved the highest academic rank available in their university system (for example, in the United States, most faculty hold seats which is conferred "full professors"). The investment income derived from seat donations is usually used to increase the professor's salary, to provide an annual budget that can be used to support the research activities of the professor, or both.
More assignments
For the position of teaching non-mastery paths in the US, academic institutions use different job titles depending on whether a position is temporary or permanent, if the job is full-time or part-time, and many other factors. Adding to the confusion over the formal names of non-ownership track positions, in almost every case the composers of the general words "professors" are used informally for people who teach at college or university, regardless of their formal job title, the terms are often changed loosely by faculty and administrators. For example, US President Barack Obama is often referred to as a law professor at the University of Chicago, when in fact he officially holds a senior lecture, causing some controversy during the US Presidential Election 2008. The Faculty of the University of Chicago Law School finally published a statement stating that it is common for professors to be called professors, and that they support the use of professor's terms to describe Obama's role with the university.
Lecturer/instructor
US "lecturers" and "Instructors" can work full-time or part-time and can be termed "professors" by their classes. In some institutions, they teach as their primary goal, but they can also serve on academic committees. Since these positions are usually not a mastery path, they often do not involve research or publishing requirements, although many of these professors are publishing, researching, and consulting. Alternatively, in US medical colleges, the title "Instructor" may be given to someone who is a full-time faculty and who can undertake research without the obligation to teach. These promises can be a path of mastery at some universities.
Visiting professor
A person employed with a college or university to teach for a limited time is sometimes referred to as "Visiting Professor" or "Visiting Lecturer"; this may be someone who is a professor elsewhere, or a scholar or practitioner who is not. The term may also refer only to the promise of teaching non-mastery pathways (usually 1 to 3 years) and/or post-doctoral research pledges. The title may reflect the naming convention used in positional positioning positions, such as the professor concerned may be called "Guest Professor's Assistant", "Dear Visitors Professor", etc.
Additional professors
A professor is a professor who does not hold a permanent or full-time position in a particular academic institution. Additional professors usually have no tenure expectations. An additional is generally unnecessary or even permitted to participate in administrative responsibilities at the institutions expected of the professors of the tenure line, and no additions typically have research responsibility.
Traditionally, the majority of additional employees hold full-time jobs outside the academy, and teach one or two classes in their respective fields of expertise to provide practical perspectives to theoretical courses often taught by full-time professors. Since the 1990s, however, the nature of professorship in the United States and other countries has shifted to refer primarily to those who are hired to teach courses on a short-term contract basis (renewed contracts). Such aides generally have the below minimum teaching burden required to obtain employee benefits such as health insurance or access to retirement accounts. Unlike the line professors, the assistant does not usually have an office or a separate place to store things.
Adjuncts are not funded to retain currency in their area of ​​expertise, or to interact with students other than in courses leased for teaching. Often, the additions will work for several universities simultaneously, because working in one school often fails to provide sufficient income to support themselves. This agreement is called part of the "working poor". In 2014, a national news article described the additional situation as "Juggling some part-time jobs, generating little benefit, depending on public assistance: This is a financial reality for many professors across the country." In 2015, a professor of law writing at The Guardian gave an anecdotal example of a low salary given some additions: teaching five courses with a gross salary of $ 15,000 for the year, less than a professional pet sitter.
Adjuncts, compared to the tenure-track faculty, are inexpensive and flexible, acting as an additional teaching resource to be called as necessary. Adjunct can not rely on work: classes can be transferred from additional to full-time professors, classes with low registration can be quickly canceled; and the teaching schedule from one semester to the next is unpredictable.
In some cases, an assistant may hold one of the standard academic rankings in another department, and be recognized as an additional rank to contribute significantly to the department concerned. Thus, one can be a "professor of physics and a professor of chemistry".
At some universities, there are different faculties. For example, at the University of Iowa, a range of additional instructors, additional assistant professors, assistant professors, and full professors; The university states that "expectations in each rank are equal to the same rank in the path of mastery".
Professor by affiliated/affiliated professor
A professor who is primarily and initially associated with an academic department, but has become officially associated with a second department, institute or program within the university and has accepted the assignment of a professor in the second department as well, can be called "professor by courtesy." Example: "Dan Jurafsky is a professor of linguistics and professor with computer science courtesy at Stanford University". Typically, the second appointment of propriety carries fewer responsibilities and fewer benefits than a single full appointment (for example, affiliated professors rarely have a vote in their courtesy department).
Research professor
A professor who does not take on all the classical tasks of a professor, but focuses on research. In most universities, research professors are not eligible for tenure and must fund their salaries entirely through research grants, without regular salary commitments from internal university sources. In line with the line mastery staff, there are assistants and the associate professor's position associates .
Full-time assistant, associate or professor of teaching
These types of professors focus on teaching, often at a higher load than the research faculty, and in departments with graduate students, supervising the teaching assistant. They can be rated assistants, peers, and full. In some institutions (such as within the University of California system), it is a full member of the Academic Senate who gets the job and is promoted in the same way as other tenure faculties.
In some institutions, they may be full-time contingent instructors who are not required to meet the research requirements of the mastery path.
Clinical professor
A clinical professor is involved in practical instruction (professional students) usually with an emphasis on practical skills that are contrary to theory. This is generally not a "tenure track" position, but can be full or part-time. This type of appointment is common in law, medicine, and business schools, and is sometimes referred to as a 'professor of practice'.
Professor of Honor
This is a degree usually given to those who have contributed significantly to school and community (eg, with contributions to academic research and development development), but may or may not get a PhD.
Demographics
Most professors in the US are male, liberal (in the contemporary American political sense), and upper middle class. A small proportion of professors are ranked the top 15% of wage earners, in 2005.
According to a study by Robert Lichter, a professor at George Mason University, "Most professors in the United States identify themselves as liberals, and registered Democrats are generally more members than registered Republican." However, this demographic trend varies across departments. A 2010 study by Gross and Fosse found that political persuasion of American professors has changed over the 20th century. In the 1800s, professors often became pastors and tended toward conservatism, which gradually became more liberal with the Progressive Era and the Great Depression. In the mid-20th century, the humanities and social sciences were dominated by liberal professors or Democrats, with Republicans or conservatives showing a small majority in business, agriculture and engineering departments. From the late 1970s to the mid-1980s there was a tendency of conservatism among professors (parallel to the national shift to the right with the "Reagan Revolution"): about 5% of professors identify themselves as leftists, about a third identifying themselves. as liberals, about 25% identify themselves as moderate, 25% conservative, and 5% very conservative. Since the 1980s, the percentage of liberal professors has grown steadily, with national research consistently finding somewhere between 7 and 9 liberals for every other professor of political persuasion.
In terms of education, most professors have doctoral degrees. Professors in the community college can only have a master's degree while those who are in a four-year institution are often required to hold a doctorate or other terminal degree. To some extent this is the result of "creep trust": why hire someone without a doctorate, because there are so many applicants with one? Older teachers, hired when doctorates are less common, tend not to hold a degree.
Salary
Most of the time, tenure-track, professors are paid by college or university with a nine or ten month contract. The salary data for professors is usually reported as a "9 month" salary, excluding the compensation received (often from research funds) over the summer. In 2006, the average 9-month overall salary for all professors in the US was reported at $ 73,000, placing a small majority of professors among the top 15% of recipients at the age of 25 years or older. However, their salaries remain well below some other comparable professions (even when including summer compensation) such as lawyers (who earn a median of $ 110,000) and doctors (whose median income ranges from $ 137,000 to $ 322,000 depending on specialization). According to the US Department of Labor,
[Academic year 2007] salary for full-time faculty in the US averages $ 73,207. Based on the ratings, the average is $ 98,974 for professors, $ 69,911 for associate professors, $ 58,662 for assistant professors, $ 42,609 for instructors, and $ 48,289 for lecturers. Faculty at 4-year institutions earn higher salaries, on average, than those in 2-year schools. In 2006-2007, average lecturer salaries were $ 84,249 in independent private institutions, $ 71,362 in public institutions, and $ 66,118 in religious affiliated colleges and universities.
Salaries vary by field and rank, ranging from $ 45,927 for the assistant professor of theology to $ 136,634 for full professors in the profession and legal studies. A 2005 study, by the College and the Professional Association of Universities for Human Resources, found the average salary for all faculty members, including instructors, to be $ 66,407, placing half of all faculty members above 15.3% of earning income over the age 25 The median salary was $ 54,000 for assistant professors, $ 64,000 for associate professors and $ 86,000 for full professors 2005. During 2005-2006, salaries for assistant professors ranged from $ 45,927 in theology to $ 81,005 in law. For associate professors, salaries range from $ 56,943 in theology to $ 98,530 in law, while salaries among full professors range from $ 68,214 in theology to $ 136,634 in law. During the years 2010-2011, associate professors' salaries vary from $ 59,593 in theology to $ 93,767 in law. Full professors in elite institutions generally enjoy six-figure incomes, such as $ 123,300 at UCLA or $ 148,500 at Stanford. The CSU system, which is the largest system in the US, with more than 11,000 faculty members, has an average full-time faculty salary of $ 74,000 in 2007, which has been scheduled to increase to $ 91,000 in 2011. Unfortunately for this faculty, the US economic crash resulting in temporary pay cuts and total salary stagnation at the 2007 level instead, despite ongoing inflation. Professors in teacher education sometimes earn less than if they were elementary teachers. In one case study report, it shows that an assistant professor of early-trace-song epoch in an elementary school teacher education at California State University, Northridge was hired in 2002 with a salary of $ 53,000, of which $ 15,738 was less than he would get in a position previously as a 9 month public school nursery teacher ($ 68,738).
Non-tenure track faculty make from $ 1,500 to $ 4,000 per course, so if teaching four courses per semester - a difficult schedule to maintain for reasons of distance and market saturation, and a higher teaching load than the track-track faculty usually survives - they can earn from $ 12,000 to $ 32,000 per year.
The following table uses figures for the 2005-2006 academic years:
See also
- Association of American University Professors
- Academic discipline
- Academic ranking
- The academic class (United States)
- Lecturer
- Scientific method
- Schools and universities in literature
References
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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